Xu Hong, Li Yutao, Guo Zhan

Keywords： Government-oriented Parking Policy; Market-oriented Parking Policy; Choice; Equity; Autonomy

Abstract：

When it comes to parking problems, governmentallocation of parking resources is the most wide-spread tool used globally. In fact, the market-allocation can be most efficient but has always been ignored. From reviewing the century-long history, this paper finds that the US parking policies have evolved“from government regulation to market allocation”. Since very few Chinese literature has studied US parking policies from the perspective of market-allocation, this paper seeks to stress this viewpoint and to explain the market-oriented parking policies proposed by Donald Shoup through literature review, while analyzing the disadvantages of government-oriented parking policies, based on economics research methods. This paper aims to contribute to relevant domestic literatures and provides inspirations on solving parking issues in China.

Funds：

• [1] FERGUSON E. Zoning for parking as policy innovation[J]. Transportation quarterly, 2003, 57(2): 47-55.
  [2] BARTER P A. Parking policy in Asian cities[R]. Asia Development Bank, 2011.
  [3] 王缉宪, 刘倩. 停车管理及其与城市土地使用的互动——理据与实践[J]. 城市规划, 2015, 39(11): 55-61.
  [4] 刘倩, 王缉宪, 李云. 面向可持续的城市停车管理：国际比较与借鉴[J]. 国际城市规划. [2019-01-03]. http://kns.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/11.5583.tu.20190402.1336.006.html.
  [5] 潘小松, 秦焕美, 关宏志, 等. 国外城市停车配建标准制定理念初探[J]. 国际城市规划, 2010, 25(4): 100-103.
  [6] BARTER P A. Off-street parking policy surprises in Asian cities[J]. Cities, 2012, 29(1): 23-31.
  [7] BARTER P A. Off-street parking policy without parking requirements: a need for market fostering and regulation[J]. Transport reviews, 2010, 30(5): 571-588.
  [8] LI F, GUO Z. Do parking standards matter? evaluating the London parking reform with a matched-pair approach[J]. Transportation research part a, 2014(67): 352-365.
  [9] 李玉涛, 周江评. 重新定位停车政策：优化出行的重要工具[J]. 城市规划, 2015, 39(4): 71-75.
  [10] 张泉, 黄富民, 曹国华, 等. 城市停车设施规划[M]. 北京: 中国建筑工业出版社, 2009.
  [11] SEGRAVE K. Parking cars in America, 1910-1945, a history[M]. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc, 2012.
  [12] SHOUP D C. The high cost of free parking[M]. American Planning Association, 2011.
  [13] SHOUP D C. The twenty-first century parking problem[M] // SHOUP D C. The high cost of free parking. American Planning Association, 2005: 1-18.
  [14] GUO Z, XU P. Duet of the commons: the impact of street cleaning on car usage in the New York City area[J]. Journal of planning education and research, 2013, 33(1): 34-48.
  [15] GUO Z. Home parking convenience, household car usage, and implications to residential parking policies[J]. Transport policy, 2013(29): 97-106.
  [16] GUO Z, SCHLOETER L. Street standards as parking policy: rethinking the provision of residential street parking in American suburbs[J]. Journal of planning education and research, 2013, 4(33): 456-470.
  [17] SHOUP D C, PICKRELL D H. Problems with parking requirements in zoning ordinances[J]. Traffic quarterly, 1978, 32(4): 545-563.
  [18] SHOUP D C. An opportunity to reduce minimum parking requirements[J]. American planning association, 1995, 61(1): 14-28.
  [19] SURBER M, SHOUP D, WACHS M. Effects of ending employer-paid parking for solo drivers: transportation research board[Z]. Washington DC: 1984.
  [20] SHOUP D C. Cashing in on curb parking[J]. Access, 1990: 20-26.
  [21] SHOUP D C, PICKRELL D H. Free parking as a transportation problem[R]. National Technical Information Service, 1980. [2018-09-04]. https://trid.trb.org/view/162615.
  [22] WILLSON R W, SHOUP D C. Parking subsidies and travel choices: assessing the evidence[J]. Transportation, 1990(17): 141-157.
  [23] SHOUP D C. The high cost of free parking[J]. Journal of planning education and research, 1997, 3(17): 2-20.
  [24] SHOUP D C. The trouble with minimum parking requirements[J]. Transportation research part a, 1999(33): 549-574.
  [25] SHOUP D C. Roughly right vs. precisely wrong[J]. Access, 2002(20): 20-25.
  [26] SHOUP D C. Truth in transportation planning[J]. Journal of transportation and statistics, 2003, 6(1): 1-16.
  [27] MICHAELM A, SHOUP D C. People, parking, and cities[J]. Access, 2004(25): 2-8.
  [28] SHOUP D C. The ideal source of local public revenue[J]. Regional science and urban economics, 2004(34): 753-784.
  [29] SHOUP D C. Turning housing into driving: parking requirements and population density in Los Angeles and New York: TRB 2013 Annual Meeting[Z]. 2013.
  [30] SHOUP D C. Free parking or free markets[J]. Access, 2011(38): 28-35.
  [31] SHOUP D C. Informal parking markets: turning problems into solutions[M] // MUKHIJA V, LOUKAITOU-SIDERIS A. The informal American city. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014: 277-294.
  [32] SHOUP D C. The politics and economics of parking on campus[R]. University of California Transportation Center, 2008.
  [33] SHOUP D C, YUAN Q, JIANG X. Charging for parking to finance public services[J]. Journal of planning education and research, 2017, 2(37): 136-149.
  [34] SHOUP D C. On-street parking management vs. off-street parking requirements[J]. Access, 2013(42): 38-40.
  [35] SHOUP D C. Instead of free parking[J]. Access, 1999(15): 8-13.
  [36] SHOUP D C. In lieu of required parking[J]. Journal of planning education and research, 1999(18): 307-320.
  [37] SHOUP D C, WILLSON R W. Employer-paid parking: the problem and proposed solutions[J]. Transportation quarterly, 1992, 46(2): 169-192.
  [38] SHOUP D C. Evaluating the effects of cashing out employer-paid parking: eight case studies[J]. Transport policy, 1997, 4(4): 201-216.
  [39] SHOUP D C. Parking cash out[R]. American Planning Association, 2011.
  [40] SHOUP D C. Buying time at the curb[R]. University or California Transportation Center, 2003.
  [41] SHOUP D C. The price of parking on great streets[Z]. Planetizen contemporary debates in urban planning, 2006: 52-56.
  [42] SHOUP D C. Parking charity[J]. Access, 2014(44): 35-37.
  [43] SHOUP D C. Parking benefit districts[J]. Access, 2016(49): 35-37.
  [44] SHOUP D C. The right price for curb parking[M] // LUCA M, SHOUP D C, RENN M A, et al. Retooling metropolis. Manhattan Institute, 2016: 9-21.
  [45] GUO Z, MCDONNELL S. Curb parking pricing for local residents: an exploration in New York City based on willingness to pay[J]. Transport policy, 2013(30): 186-198.
  [46] SHOUP D C. Cruising for parking[J]. Transport policy, 2006(13): 479-486.
  [47] RIVASPLATA C, GUO Z, LEE R, et al. Residential on-site carsharing and off-street parking policy in the San Francisco Bay Area[R]. Mineta Transportation Institute, 2012.
  [48] GREGORY P, SHOUP D C. SFpark: pricing parking by demand[J]. Access, 2013(43): 20-28.
  [49] PIERCE G, SHOUP D C. Getting the prices right[J]. Journal of the American planning association, 2013, 79(1): 67-81.
  [50] PIERCE G, WILLSON H, SHOUP D C. Optimizing the use of public garages: pricing parking by demand[J]. Transport policy, 2015(44): 89-95.
  [51] PIERCE G, WILLSON H, SHOUP D C. Optimal pricing of public parking garages[J]. Transfers, 2018(spring): 1-5.
  [52] 理查德·泰勒.“ 错误的行为”：行为经济学关于世界的思考，从个人到商业和社会[M]. 北京: 中信出版社, 2016.
  [53] 荣朝和. 经济时空分析——基础框架及其应用[M]. 北京: 经济科学出版社, 2017.
  [54] 奥斯特罗姆. 公共事物的治理之道——集体行动制度的演进[M]. 上海: 上海三联书店, 2000.
  [55] 北京市规划委员会. 北京地区建设工程规划设计通则[S]. 2012: 179.
  [56] 北京市人民政府. 北京市大中型公共建筑停车场建设管理暂行规定[S]. 1989: 1.